The Notre Dame Cathedral was built in honour of the Virgin Mary, and opened in 1345, in a time when Christianity had a very strong influence over the people and their beliefs. Additionally, art was also heavily influenced by an ecclesiastical presence and religion, many works of the 14th century being linked to spirituality. Within the same few decades, the debacle of women in medicine was at the height of controversy. For one reason or another, much of the work women were permitted to do, and were viewed as respectable employment opportunities, by men, was more in the field of soft arts, such as cloth weaving, embroidery, etc. One case in particular stood out to me; that of Jacoba Felicie in 1322, who, despite her work being banned, continued her practice of medicine, and helped others. Her defiance for the sake of benevolence of others speaks to a good heart and what it truly takes to be a physician. It is beautiful, as is art, as is medicine. Jacoba Felicie challenged the ideal version of women through her actions. Thus, it only seems fitting the idealized version of the Christian women of the Middle Ages and earlier, Virgin Mary, be challenged through a comparative artistic representation.

My final project is inspired by Virgin Mary Angels stained glass in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The piece is meant to resemble a stained-glass window, depicting a woman physician, or specifically Jacoba Felicie, in the style often used in religious representations of women in works of stained glass.

The medium of my artistic representation of my research, as seen, is paint and canvas. In a perfect world, I would have instead used real stained glass, however, I do not have the skill or experience to even know where to begin. Painting as artistic expression is something I have done for quite a few years and enjoy doing. I believe my representation is more readily understood through a medium I am comfortable and familiar with.

The painting I have produced, and named “Jacoba Felicie and her Adoring Patients”, is reminiscent of Virgin Mary Angels stained glass in Notre Dame Cathedral of Paris. The representation shows a circle with a woman at the centre, surrounded with six other small circles, with bright decorative boarders. The featured woman is Jacoba Felicie, draped in blue. The blue represents heavenly love and the Virgin Mary (The Symbolism of Stained Glass, 2017), as this is a comparison the Virgin herself. Furthermore, Jacoba is holding two items: a urine flask, and medicinal herbs. These items are shown as they were common pieces of medical equipment at the time. The wise woman is painted in the center of a red, diamond-like, block. This is to represent love and martyred saints (The Symbolism of Stained Glass, 2017).

Within the smaller circles are other figures of note. The four women to the sides, represent Jacoba’s adoring patients, comparative to the adoring angels in the window this work is inspired by. The bottom most figure is a depiction of Jean de St. Omar, a male patient of Jacoba’s (Amt, 2010). He is shown in purple to represent his status in society. The figure shown on top is Saint Rafael the Archangel, patron saint of healing. Raphael is thought of as one of the most compassionate angels, and is noted for his willingness to aid those in need, as is Jacoba Felicie. It is for this reason I felt it reasonable to include him in my artistic representation. The Saint is shown in the piece wearing green, to represent his reliance on nature when it comes to healing, and his defence of nature and the environment. Furthermore, he is holding a staff in his left hand, to illuminate his protection of youths on their travels. In his right hand he holds a fish, in reference to one of Raphael’s most famous tales of restoring someone’s sight with the aid of a fish (Archangel Rafael, 2022).

The trial of Jacoba Felicie occurred in Paris, France, in 1322 (Amt, 2010). At this point in history, most trades were regulated, or began to be regulated, by the church or civil authorities. Additionally, universities and education were on the rise, and women, in particular, were excluded from participation. The practice of medicine and healing was heavily regulated and monitored, as it was relatively recently recognized as a field of study, most strictly reserved for university students.

While female practitioners were not yet banned in every country, female healers were far less tolerable in Paris in the 13th century. The royal, academic and religious decrees were promoted to restrict the practice of medicine to licensed physicians only (Minkowski, 1992). All candidates for licensure were required to complete the university training, as well as some clerical vows, both of which women were particularly excluded from. The result of this legislation was to ensure that field of healing endured a transfer of power from a female-dominated endeavour, and became a male monopoly (Green, 1989). These new standards were defended on the grounds that they improved the quality of medical care, but unlicensed healers regarded them as a transparent ploy by the church to eliminate unwanted competition (Azzolini, 2010). The new requirement of licensing, for which she must attend university to receive but cannot because she is a woman, for a craft dominated by women, is another way in which the patriarchal system has disadvantaged women to give to men when that industry or field is profitable.

Despite it being illegal, many people still preferred wise women (female physicians) when seeking healthcare. Jacoba had established exceptional authority and influence in social aspects and developed a fair reputation, even if she had none of the institutional power that the medical faculty was then excluding her from (Green, 2006). Jacoba’s patients were sick and had already been visited by a registered physician. However, out of sake for modesty (Green, 1989, Minokowski, 1992) or lack or knowledge of the female body (Cabre, 2000, Geldenhuys, 2007, Green, 1989), the men did little to help, or simply consigned them to death altogether. Jacoba Felicie defended that she should be allowed to continue her practice. She held the position that as a female she would not threaten women’s safety or modesty. The court dismissed her arguments as “worthless” and “frivolous.” The refusal of the medical faculty to engage in a debate about sexual “propriety”, strongly suggests that they were not willing to relinquish the treatment of female patients from men to women practitioners (Green, 1989). If we consider the strong influence of the church, in regards to what laws are made, and the development and government of universities, we can infer the courts may have already decided how to rule to reach their desired result of Jacoba’s trial. The church viewed these wise women, with strong influence and benevolence, as a threat to its supremacy. Given this, perhaps if was the ecclesiastical authorities who were set on controlling women and maintaining patriarchy, more so than men in general.

The case of Jacoba Felicie demonstrates the complexity and difficulty in the reasoning of why women were pushed out of their roles as healers by exploring not only tensions between expectations of men and women, but also the sexual division of labour (making the effects of professionalization of medicine unique for women). Further demonstrated in Jacoba’s case are the often-conflicting needs and goals of secular, religious, and royal, authorities.

 

 

Works Cited:

Amt, E. (2010). University of Paris Records: Case of a Woman Physician (1322) [E-book]. In Women’s Lives in Medieval Europe: A Sourcebook (2nd ed., pp. 103–106). Routledge. Retrieved June 15, 2022, from https://www-taylorfrancis-com.prxy.lib.unbc.ca/books/mono/10.4324/9781315881331/women-lives-medieval-europe-emilie-amt

Archangel Raphael – Angel of Healing – Spiritual Symbolism. (2022, May 1). iPublishing. https://www.ipublishing.co.in/archangel-raphael

Azzolini, M. (2010). Making Women’s Medicine Masculine: The Rise of Male Authority in Pre-Modern Gynaecology by Monica H. Green. Gender & History, 22(2), 468–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0424.2010.01602_5.x

Cabre, M. (2000). From a Master to a Laywoman: A Feminine Manual of Self-Help. Dynamis: Acta Hispanica Ad Medicinae Scientiarumque Historiam Illustrandam, 20, 371–393. https://raco.cat/index.php/Dynamis/article/view/86638/111652

Geldenhuys, L. (2007). Women’s Healthcare in the Medieval West Monica H. Green. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 24(1), 239–240. https://doi.org/10.3138/cbmh.24.1.239

Green, M. (1989). Women’s Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14(2), 434–473. https://doi.org/10.1086/494516

Green, M. H. (2006). Getting to the Source: The Case of Jacoba Felicie and the Impact of the Portable Medieval Reader on the Canon of Medieval Women’s History. Medieval Feminist Forum, 42, 49–62. https://doi.org/10.17077/1536-8742.1057

Minkowski, W. L. (1992). Women healers of the middle ages: selected aspects of their history. American Journal of Public Health, 82(2), 288–295. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.82.2.288

The Symbolism of Stained Glass. (2017, March 16). Cumberland Stained Glass. https://www.cumberlandstainedglass.com/the-symbolism-of-stained-glass/

 

 

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